Pietism vs. Monasticism
While reading through the history of Christianity one develops a strong feeling that much of the churches growth was born out of opposition to the status quo or from the belief that the current expression of the church is either incorrect or corrupt and can only be corrected by radical separation or reformation.
Soon after a previously dynamic and influential Christian group settles down into a comfortable existence, a portion of people start to become agitated and rebellious – looking forward to the true expression of the church. Anecdotally, this is true not just of the time periods of Pietism and Monasticism but of our 21st century church as much as any other time in history: witness the growth of the Emerging Church movement as a response to “institutional church” which seeks to show Christ to this world in new and interesting ways.
The purpose of such a renewal movement is to call people from either unorthodox thinking, spiritual laziness or from the fringes of nominalism into a new or greater commitment to their faith.
Both the early church�s monastic movement as well as the denominations born out of the Protestant Reformation lived with dissatisfaction regarding their contemporary expression of church and each sought to remedy this with a return to strict and faithful observance of the Christian practices of piety.
While both Protestant piety and early Monasticism share this similar desire to draw nearer to the heart of God, their cause, effect and shapes are radically different.
Pietism
Historical context. How was Pietism caused and shaped?
In the first sense, the movement that is Pietism was born out of rebellion, rebellion to the forces of both the Reformation and the Enlightenment. Pietism was a reactionary response in the time that saw the church under attack on three fronts. There were the rationalists and their anti-religious viewpoint; official churches who were more interested with the happenings inside the walls of their churches instead of what was happening outside; and churches who were looking outside of their walls but were most likely to be labeled by their contemporaries as regicidal or fanatics. “Pietism was one response to [these difficulties], yet it was far from unattractive and was to prove enduring in its influence.”[1]
Gonzalez affirms this, noting that Pietism was “a response to the dogmatism of the theologians and the rationalism of the philosophers, both of which contrasted with the living faith that is at the heart of Christianity.”[2] The practice of Pietism was a return to the center of Christian life by the pursuit of Spiritual devotion.
Where the Anabaptists and the English Puritans were seen as renewal movements within 16th century Protestantism, each spurring on the faithful to return to heart of God, Pietism likewise was a further movement of renewal that started in the late 17th century.
While the concepts of what was to become Pietism were already in the collective consciousness of the German churches of where it was born, it was the publishing of Philipp Jakob Spener�s book Pia Desideria (Pious Desires)[3] that became the decisive moment for the creation of a movement which distilled its characteristic features[4] and led to Spener being know as the “father of Pietism”[5].
As for its place in history, “Pietism stands at the fountainhead of modern evangelicalism � spawning Methodism and, through it, later revivalism and the Pentecostal and charismatic movements.”[6] Certainly this is an influential moment in Protestant Christian history and one that bears exploration.
Characteristic features of Pietism
As a pastor in Frankfurt, Spener introduced to his congregation groups of Bible study and devotional practices that he termed “colleges of piety.”[7] To my mind these colleges seem to be a forerunner to what some may label small group ministries and accountability groups which form the basis (or at least a significant role) of many Western churches.
The work Pia Desideria was published after approximately five years of practical application of Spener�s colleges of piety in his local ministry.
“Spener�s Pia Desideria (1675) proposed the means to disseminate the new piety: the formation of groups of dedicated laymen within the existing ecclesiastical organization”[8]
What it amounted to was a call for deeper commitment of personal faith through prayer devotion and study for the layman and a call for preachers to become more accessible in their preaching because “the purpose of preaching is not to show the preacher�s knowledge, but rather to call believers to be obedient to the Word of God.”[9]
As Pietism was in one part a reactionary to the rising tide of intellectualism that the Enlightenment would soon bring, Pietists countered this with equal rigor by appealing much to the role of the Holy Spirit in the life of the Christian and to the complete authority of the Bible as the Word of God. Spener�s encouragement in this regard was that Bible readers “should not let their reason be master” rather they “should give close attention to the words of the Holy Spirit, how they are framed� and also compare the portion read with other passages of Scripture”[10]
I would have expected that since the constitution of Pietism is in part anti-Enlightenment this would cause the movement to retreat into anti-intellectualism, but this is carefully counterbalanced by placing an emphasis upon the academic life insofar as that academic life was Biblically centered and the teaching not driven by a philosophical agenda.
This had a welcome corollary, by focusing on the individual�s relationship with God, the Pietist “avoided many of the doctrinal arguments that has had Christians (or alleged Christians) at one another�s throats”,[11] very important in a time that appealed more to Orthodoxy than Orthopraxy.
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Outcomes of Pietism
“In a sense, what was at stake in the controversy over Pietism was whether the Christian faith should simply serve to sanction common morality, or should rather call believers to a different sort of life.”[12] It was the position of the Orthodox church that the only requirements on a believer was to have a correct understanding of doctrine and to live a decent life. However the Pietists advocated a contrast between the expectations of society and the expectations of God which created an uncomfortable challenge for a comfortable church.
Many scholars echo the sentiment that early Protestants were very introspective, simply not interested in the cause of missions because they were just too caught up in the struggle to survive politically and socially as churches no longer under the authority of Rome. Some even subscribed to the notion that “modern Christians were not called to preach to other nations”.[13]
“Lacking sea-borne contact with the distant mission fields, Germany, it seemed, would contribute little to the Protestant effort [of missions] � that is, until Pietism, the great movement of spiritual renewal, arose within Lutheranism.”[14]
Therefore, the most significant outcome of Pietism was the birth of the Protestant mission movement. Imbued by Pietism, a tiny Moravian community exiled from their own lands and the support of the Danish King, led the way of Protestant missions into the new world. The Moravians were the acknowledged missional leaders because of the ratio of missionaries in their community as well as “the lengths they were prepared to go. Moravian missionaries in the West Indies even sold themselves into slavery”[15] in order to reach out in the faith to the slaves and their owners. The Moravian�s did not set out in ones and twos but as “an entire community, of families as well as of unmarried, devoted to the propagation of the faith”[16]
Monasticism
Historical context. How was monasticism caused and shaped?
From the early ascetics such as Simon Stylites who sat on the pillar in the desert to the formal orders of the 13th century Dominican and Franciscan friars, the monastic lifestyle of separation from the world, living in community and devotion to Spiritual disciplines has and continues to be an appealing concept and one that has shaped Christian living and piety.
Under the rule of the Emperor Constantine came the legalization of the Christian faith within the Roman Empire, this all but ended the opportunities for martyrdom within the Empire. At the time, martyrdom was seen by an oppressed and persecuted church as the pinnacle of Christian obedience. The corollary of this acceptance of Christianity was to create “a growing sentiment among many that the Christian movement had lost something of its spiritual edge, something of its dynamic power. The desire for greater discipline and self-sacrifice, for the opportunity to give all for Christ, sent many into the wilderness in search of a life of holiness.”[17]
We may view the first Egyptian desert dwellers, the ascetics, as one of the first renewal movements within a Christianity that was in danger of becoming comfortable and unchallenged as it rose in stature within the Roman Empire.[18]
After casting off material comforts, foraging for food and finding water in isolated places the ascetics spent their days in prayer and contemplation of God, this provided a kind of living Martyrdom. Their desire to live a radically different lifestyle to the mainstream proved to be a powerful attractant to those seeking more from their spiritual life and large numbers of people came out and followed them into the wilderness. “Finding themselves besieged, the ascetics had little choice but to respond by sharing their spiritual insights and directions”[19]
The first order, or rule for communal monastic life was created by a savvy Egyptian ascetic named Pachomius. It was Pachomius who provided a general organizing system for the growing communities of monks and nuns who could be found living on the outskirts of towns and villages. His focus on communal life left a lasting impact, and� over 3000 communities were established which stands as a testimony to his methods.
Further, crucial to the development of monasticism in the medieval period was St Benedict�s rule which “combined the zeal of earlier monastic pioneers with a carefully balanced concern for stability�codifying vows of obedience, stability, and conversation morum (continual conversion) which led on to the more general vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience”[20]
These attributes provided a platform for further reform and renewal in later centuries, for instance the Cistercian order who adapted the Benedictine Rule to their great benefit.
Characteristic features of Monasticism
Although we may apply the label of monasticism to groups spanning from the fourth Century to today, it would be incorrect of us to treat all monastic groups and orders as a single homogeneous movement. For instance:
“The Cistercian Order came into existence only a few years later than the Augustinian canons, and the two Orders rose to the height of popularity at exactly the same time. Nevertheless they satisfied very different needs.”[21]
Monastic orders were renewal movements for their times. They pursued “a radical alternative to the normal way of life to the laity and secular clergy. The new orders of the twelfth century represented this alternative in a much sharper form than the older monasticism”[22]
An extremely short survey of some influential Western monastic movements helps to highlight their character and variety.
St Benedict�s rule gave dignity to manual labor and codified a life of obedience in Christian worship. The outcomes of which as previously stated set the tone for the need of continual renewal in a persons spiritual life and led to other orders using the general vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience in their life.
The Cistercian order maintained an “intense devotion to the crucified Lord”[23] they withdrew far from the towns and cities and attempted to make themselves as unlovable from the perspective of the world[24] which made them all the more attractive and placed them in a position to grow and shape town life.[25]
The Franciscans were wholly original in their orders and governance however in their piety “they were the heirs of the Cistercian devotion to the person of Jesus”.[26] The order was called to “live literally the life of Christ� total surrender, symbolized in following precisely the Gospel precept to sell everything and give to the poor.”[27]
The Dominican orders foundation was aimed “at combating heresy through preaching reinforced by a primitive simplicity of apostolic life.”[28] Dominic, the order�s founder saw that it was necessary to throw off the pomp of ecclesiastical office in order to cut through to the display of �true religion�.
What we may distill from this general outline of monastic life is that each iteration of monastic orders centered on greater spiritual devotion through work, discipline and application. From simplicity to poverty they made their mark on the world by living different to the world.
Outcomes of Monasticism
It can be seen that each monastic order through each period of renewal held the attention of it’s contemporary community and whether it was intentional or otherwise these monastic communities transformed themselves into missional communities.
The examples of the monastic lifestyles became an attractant for those who found themselves disenfranchised with a material society, the direction of secular society or those simply seeking a greater level of devotion in their Christian life.
With the ability to draw so many to a life of discipleship is certainly to the benefit of monasticism. The institutions took on a vital role in the combating of heresy and helped to shape the thinking of generations through their connection with the university towns as well as shaping the execution of town life by being the examples of behavior as landlords and businessmen.
Comparison and contrasts between Pietism and Monastic life
Both Pietism and the various incarnations of Monasticism share a place in history as groups that shaped public opinion, drew generations into a life of discipleship and furthered the cause of Christ.
Distinct from many movements that are rooted within a certain cultural context and unable to disassociate itself with that context Pietism broke free of its Lutheran roots as far as portability is concerned influencing the Moravian exiles and even John Wesley.
However “Pietists did not conclude from their distinction between living faith and mere assent that the former was church-defining; instead of becoming Separatists, they practiced what has been called ecclesiola in ecclesiae, or church-within-the church.”[29]
In their time, monastic movements commanded a �global�[30] reach and influence which allowed for the rapid spread of ideas and construction of monastic communities throughout Europe but were far from Pietisms ecclesiola in ecclesiae. Although part of the Catholic Church the monastic orders maintained their own rule, separating themselves from mainstream society in their monasteries and convents.
Where they draw together is on the mission field. Until the Pietism infused Moravians, Protestant Christianity had little to offer to the mission field where as monastic communities took the lead in teaching doctrine, combating heresy, traveling through Europe and the New World as missionaries and establishing the principles of cross cultural ministry in places such as China and Japan.
While not discounting the amount of discipline required live life as a Piest, there is a certain harshness to the monastic life that can not be overlooked. While the Piest undertook something in the order of 3 hours a day of study and devotional reading, the Monk cloistered monk had every single hour of the day mapped out for sleep, eating, work, prayer and praise.
Conclusion
As movements of renewal, both Pietism and Monasticism served their generations well. They responded to the needs of people who were dissatisfied with simply living a moral life and wanted to go deeper through a life of discipleship and living as Christ in their own time.
While the ascetics desired above all else to simple be alone in the desert to seek their Lord in living martyrdom they could not help but become a powerful attractant for others who would come to hear their teaching, seek counsel and sometimes even arbitration.
Later monastic orders had similar influence on the society around them, “Their rules of life became yardsticks of Christian living”[31] and their devotional practices are still observed today by those seeking a deeper devotion to Christ.
While Pietism did not seek to separate itself from its native Lutheranism it too became a powerfully attractant to those in the Protestant world who sought to develop a life beyond correct doctrine.
This renewal movement touched and inspired a generation of missionaries and has modeled down the centuries methods of Spiritual practice such as meeting together in small groups (colleges of piety) and daily devotional reading.
This is a history that should be treasured and instructional to the modern church. “Pietism should count as a treasure to be cherished, not so much in memory as in emulation”[32]
Contemporary expressions of renewal such as the Emerging Church movement seek to change the way we think about “doing” church in a corporate sense while “The Walk to Emmaus” seeks to bring personal renewal by creating a place where one can (re)encounter Jesus.
What can these and other contemporary movements learn from Pietism and Monasticism? I would assert that they would need to demonstrate and live out clear countercultural values, values that emulate closely the life of Christ. This alone brought people to the desert to listen to the ascetics and drew in a band of refugees to take the message of the Cross to distant shores.
How may we evaluate contemporary renewal movements? By the fruit of lives changed.
References
Dowley, T., (ed), The History of Christianity, (Oxford: Lion, 1990), 558. “Outposts of Empire” by Walls, A.F.
Gonzalez, J. L, The Story of Christianity Vol II, New York: Harper Collins, 1985
Irvin, D. T. and Sunquist, S. W., History of the World Christian Movement Vol I, New York: Orbis Books, 2003
Livingstone, E.A., The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000
McManners, J., The Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992
McManners, J., (ed) The Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), 110. “The West: The Age of Conversion (700-1050)” by Mayr-Hartin, H.
McManners, J., (ed) The Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992. “Christian Civilization (1050-1400)” by Morris, C.
Noll, M., Turning Points: Decisive Moments in the History of Christianity, Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Academic, Ed� II, 2000
Pearse, M. The Age of Reason Vol V, Oxford: Monarch Books, 2007
Schattschneider, D. A., William Carey, Modern Missions, and the Moravian Influence, International Bulletin of Missionary Research 22:1, 1998
Sothern, R. W., Western Society and the Church in the Middle Ages, Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1966
[1] Gonzalez, J. L, The Story of Christianity Vol II, (New York: Harper Collins, 1985), 218
[2] Gonzalez, J. L, The Story of Christianity Vol II, (New York: Harper Collins, 1985), 205
[3] Pia Desideria was published c1675
[4] “Pietism”, Livingstone, E.A., The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 451
[5] Gonzalez, J. L, The Story of Christianity Vol II, (New York: Harper Collins, 1985), 205
[6] Pearse, M. The Age of Reason Vol V, (Oxford: Monarch Books, 2007), 218
[7] Gonzalez, J. L, The Story of Christianity Vol II, (New York: Harper Collins, 1985), 205
[8] McManners, J., The Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), 292
[9] Gonzalez, J. L, The Story of Christianity Vol II, (New York: Harper Collins, 1985), 206
[10] Pearse, M. The Age of Reason Vol V, (Oxford: Monarch Books, 2007), 222
[11] _____, 222
[12] Gonzalez, J. L, The Story of Christianity Vol II, (New York: Harper Collins, 1985), p206-7
[13] _____, 208
[14] McManners, J., The Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), 331
[15] Dowley, T., (ed), The History of Christianity, (Oxford: Lion, 1990), 558. “Outposts of Empire” by Walls, A.F.
[16] Schattschneider, D. A., William Carey, Modern Missions, and the Moravian Influence, (International Bulletin of Missionary Research 22:1, 1998)
[17] Irvin, D. T. and Sunquist, S. W., History of the World Christian Movement Vol I, (New York: Orbis Books, 2003), 210
[18] Not to discount the many heresies that were to be debated within this period, I refer to the comfort of being the religion of choice within the Roman Empire.
[19] Irvin, D. T. and Sunquist, S. W., History of the World Christian Movement Vol I, (New York: Orbis Books, 2003), 210
[20] Noll, M., Turning Points: Decisive Moments in the History of Christianity, (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Academic, Ed� II, 2000), 93
[21] Sothern, R. W., Western Society and the Church in the Middle Ages, (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1966), 250
[22] McManners, J., (ed) The Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), 210. “Christian Civilization (1050-1400)” by Morris, C.
[23] McManners, J., (ed) The Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), 218. “Christian Civilization (1050-1400)” by Morris, C.
[24] This was achieved by severe internal discipline, discouraging learning , plain ritual and the absence of relics.
[25] Sothern, R. W., Western Society and the Church in the Middle Ages, (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1966), 254-5
[26] _____, 273
[27] _____, 281
[28] _____, 271
[29] Pearse, M. The Age of Reason Vol V, (Oxford: Monarch Books, 2007), 224
[30] at least through Europe which one may contend was the extent of the world at the time
[31] McManners, J., (ed) The Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), 110. “The West: The Age of Conversion (700-1050)” by Mayr-Hartin, H.
[32] Pearse, M. The Age of Reason Vol V, (Oxford: Monarch Books, 2007), 219
